A review of the human health risks

The concentration and survival of FIB or pathogenic microorganisms in beach sand depends on many factors including the characteristics of the organism, other organisms present, nutrient availability, temperature, moisture, salinity, substrate type and wave energy, plus the type and extent of activities in the environment that contribute to microbial loads (e.g. [...] The concentration and survival of pathogenic microorganisms in beach sand depends on many factors including the characteristics of the organism, other organisms present, nutrient availability, temperature, moisture, salinity, substrate type and wave energy, plus the type and extent of activities in the environment that contribute to microbial loads (e.g. [...] When considering beaches adjacent to non-tidal rivers and lakes, the focus is on exposure to microorganisms in sand in the dry areas of the beach (equivalent to the supratidal zone). [...] Sewage and stormwater outflows from infrastructure are also point sources, although the impact of these on the microbial safety of the sand depends on the quality and dispersal of the discharged water. [...] The concentration of FIB in the water is not a reliable indicator of the concentration in sand on the adjacent beach.