From Colonial Castaways to Current Tribulation: Tragedy of Indian Hijra

Hijras were traditionally influential persons who were in charge of the collection of taxes and charges in the courts of the Sultanate and Mughal empires (Arondekar, 2009). [...] This marked the beginning of the larger history of the marginali- zation and criminalization of certain indigenous domestic formations (vagrants, un- employed, prostitutes, and hijras) by the colonial government and the upper eche- lons of Indian society in the nineteenth century. [...] As a result of disagreements among colonial officials on the proper categoriza- tion of specific Indian social roles, the parameters of the internally heterogeneous co- lonial category of eunuch were constantly revised throughout the course of the nine- teenth century. [...] 3 Emasculation is the dharm (religious obligation) of hijras, and the surrender of male sexuality through the surgical removal of the organ of male sexuality is at the core of the formation of the Hijra social identity. [...] Despite the fact that international human rights standards acknowledge the di- versity of humanity and explicitly protect the rights of members of marginalized groups like transgender people, India has failed to respect, protect, and promote the rights of transgender people, particularly members of the hijras community.