Across the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, land is a scarce and valuable resource. The projected increase in land demand due to demographic trends, coupled with decreasing land supply due to climatic and governance factors, indicate a looming crisis happening at a time when the region is also facing dramatic social and political transformation. Reserves for land cultivation are almost exhausted, while total built-up area will need to expand to accommodate high demographic growth. Yet, land remains inefficiently, inequitably, and unsustainably used. There are strong barriers to land access for both firms and individuals. Firms resort to political connections to access land, resulting in land misallocation. Women are 2 to 3 times more likely to fear losing their property in the case of spousal death or divorce, and their rights are not sufficiently supported by institutions and gender-imbalanced social norms. Refugees also face difficulties in accessing land; conflict in the region is causing the displacement of millions of people who lack necessary housing, land, and property rights. This report identifies and analyzes the economic, environmental, and social challenges associated with land in MENA countries, shedding light on policy options to address them. It focuses on two main constraints - scarcity of land and weak land governance - and how they affect land use and access, the resulting inefficiencies and inequities, and associated economic and social costs. It highlights the need for MENA countries to think about land more holistically and to reassess the strategic trade-offs involving land, while minimizing land distortions and serving economic development. It is also an attempt to fill major data gaps and promote a culture of open data, transparency, and inclusive dialogue on land. These efforts are important steps that will contribute to renewing the social contract, accompany economic and digital transformation, and facilitate recovery and reconstruction in the region.
Authors
- DOI
- https://dx.doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1661-1
- Disclosure Date
- 2024/08/27
- Disclosure Status
- Disclosed
- Doc Name
- Land Matters : Can Better Governance and Management of Scarcity Prevent a Looming Crisis in the Middle East and North Africa?
- ISBN
- 978-1-4648-1661-1;978-1-4648-1738-0
- Pages
- 131
- Product Line
- Research Activity
- Published in
- United States of America
- Rel Proj ID
- 1W-Land For Productive, Inclusive And Sustainable Economic Develop -- P170792
- Unit Owning
- DEC-Sustainability & Infrastruct (DECSI)
- Version Type
- Final
- Volume No
- 1
Table of Contents
- Front Cover 1
- Contents 7
- Foreword 11
- Acknowledgments 13
- About the Authors and Contributors 15
- Executive Summary 19
- Abbreviations 23
- Glossary of Arabic Terms 25
- Introduction 27
- Introduction 27
- Framework for a Discussion of Land Issues 28
- Chapter 1 Land Scarcity, Land Use Dynamics, and Land Use Issues in the MENA Region 31
- Introduction 31
- Land Use in the MENA Region: Historical Trends and Current Situation 31
- Key Drivers of Land Use Patterns in MENA Countries 38
- Future Trends and Impacts on the Demand for Land 43
- Annex 1A: The Potential for Cropland Expansion 44
- Annex 1B: The Determinants of Global Land Degradation 45
- Notes 46
- References 47
- Chapter 2 Legal, Institutional, and Governance Challenges Facing Land Use in MENA Countries 51
- Introduction 51
- Historical Foundations of Legal Frameworks in the MENA Region 51
- Land Governance Challenges 56
- Land Administration Challenges 64
- Notes 71
- References 72
- Chapter 3 Barriers to Accessing Land in the MENA Region 75
- Introduction 75
- Firms’ Difficulties in Accessing Land 0
- Women’s Difficulties in Accessing Land 0
- Refugees, Internally Displaced Persons, and Their Land and Property Rights 85
- Annex 3A: The Role of Political Connections in Facilitating Access to Land in Tunisia and Egypt 86
- Notes 87
- References 89
- Chapter 4 Market Distortions and Land Use Inefficiencies in the MENA Region 95
- Introduction 95
- Expanded Conceptual Framework 95
- Land Distortions in MENA Economies 97
- Policies 100
- Annex 4A: The Distribution of Farmland 103
- Notes 103
- References 104
- Chapter 5 Land Policy Challenges and Options in the MENA Region 107
- Introduction 107
- A Country Taxonomy of Challenges 107
- Improving Land Administration and Tenure 109
- Mobilizing Revenue from Land 110
- Better Managing Public Land 111
- Managing Agricultural Land: Policies and Strategic Objectives 113
- Responding to Urban Land Needs 116
- Promoting Equal Access to Land for Women and Vulnerable Groups 118
- Annex 5A: Taxonomy of MENA Countries—Land Issues 0
- Notes 122
- References 124
- Conclusion and Priorities for Reform 127
- References 128
- Boxes 32
- Box 1.1 FAOSTAT and MODIS Land Cover Type data sets 32
- Box 1.2 The drivers of global cropland loss 39
- Box 1.3 The impact of the Syrian conflict on cultivated land 41
- Box 2.1 Land tenure categories under the Ottoman Land Code of 1858 53
- Box 2.2 The complexities of the Arab Republic of Egypt’s deed and title registration systems 57
- Box 2.3 Components of the Registering Property index 65
- Box 2.4 Components of the Quality of Land Administration index 68
- Box 5.1 Inheritance reform in the Arab Republic of Egypt 118
- Box 5.2 The Soulalyat mobilization for collective rural land in Morocco 119
- Box 5.3 Inheritance reform in the Islamic Republic of Iran 119
- Figures 28
- Figure I.1 Conceptual framework for land issues, MENA 28
- Figure I.2 Centrality of the land nexus 29
- Figure 1.1 Land cover breakdown, by region 33
- Figure 1.2 Area under permanent crops and arable land and cropland area per capita, by region, 2018 (FAOSTAT) 34
- Figure 1.3 Cropland and cropland mosaic, by region, 2018 (MODIS) 35
- Figure 1.4 Cropland and cropland mosaic, MENA, 2018 (MODIS) 35
- Figure 1.5 Cropland exposure to drought, by all regions and MENA region, 2003–18 36
- Figure 1.6 Land use conversion, MENA, 2003–18 37
- Figure 1.7 Growth in land consumption and urban population, MENA and rest of the world, 2000–2015 38
- Figure 1.8 The effects of land scarcity and land governance on cropland loss, by region 40
- Figure B1.3.1 Reduction in cropland in the Syrian Arab Republic relative to Türkiye arising from the Syrian conflict, 2010–19 42
- Figure 1.9 Availability of agricultural land per capita, MENA, 1961–2050 44
- Figure 2.1 Land under public ownership index, by region 59
- Figure 2.2 Corruption and poor protection of property rights, by all regions and MENA region 62
- Figure 2.3 Property taxation, by region and selected economies, 2020 63
- Figure 2.4 Registering Property scores, by region and MENA country/economy, 2020 64
- Figure 2.5 Quality of Land Administration indexes, by region and MENA country/economy, 2020 67
- Figure 2.6 Quality of Land Administration (QLA) scores, GDP per capita, and population, MENA 69
- Figure 2.7 Geographic Coverage scores, MENA, 2020 70
- Figure 3.1 Firms finding access to land a major or severe constraint, by region and country/economy 76
- Figure 3.2 Share of politically connected firms, by region and MENA country/economy, 2019 and 2020 77
- Figure 3.3 Share of firms reporting severe constraints in access to land, by political connection status, the Arab Republic of Egypt, Morocco, and Tunisia, 2019 and 2020 77
- Figure 3.4 Gender differences in perceived tenure insecurity in the event of a divorce or death of spouse, MENA 80
- Figure 3.5 Number of inheritance cases related to exclusion of heirs in shari‘a courts, Jordan, 2010–20 81
- Figure 3.6 Evolution of the share of inheritance cases related to exclusion of heirs in shari‘a courts, Jordan, 2010–20 81
- Figure 3.7 Gender equality in legal frameworks governing property and inheritance, by region, 1970–2020 82
- Figure 3.8 Gender inequality and quality of land administration, MENA and rest of the world 84
- Figure 4.1 Conceptual framework for land misallocation, MENA 96
- Figure 4.2 Mortgage loans, MENA, 2015 98
- Figure 4.3 Housing loan penetration and registration coverage, MENA and rest of the world 98
- Figure 4.4 Slums and cost of property registration, MENA and rest of the world 99
- Figure 4.5 Egyptian industrial zones, by distance from cities with more than 200,000 residents and year of creation, 1927–2020 101
- Figure 4.6 Utilization rate of Egyptian industrial zones, by distance from cities with more than 200,000 residents and length of time since creation 101
- Figure 4.7 Total area sold before and after implementation of vacant land tax in four cities, Saudi Arabia 102
- Figure 4A.1 Distribution of agricultural land, MENA, various years 103
- Figure 5.1 MENA country taxonomy according to land availability, weak land governance, and demographic pressure 109
- Figure 5.2 Wheat harvested area and wheat imports, Saudi Arabia, 1961–2018 115
- Maps 42
- Map 1.1 Land cover change on each side of the Syrian Arab Republic-Türkiye border, 2009–17 42
- Map 2.1 Land reportedly owned by the military, Algiers, Algeria 60
- Tables 37
- Table 1.1 Movements in and out of cropland, by region, 2003–18 37
- Table 1A.1 Land under cultivation and potential for expansion (seven major international crops), by region 45
- Table 1B.1 Determinants of global land degradation (stage 1) 45
- Table 1B.2 Determinants of global land degradation (stage 2) 46
- Table 2.1 Registering Property index rankings, MENA, 2020 65
- Table 2.2 Quality of Land Administration index scores, MENA, 2020 67
- Table 3A.1 Effects of regime change on land access constraints, the Arab Republic of Egypt and Tunisia 87
- Table 5A.1 Selected indicators, MENA 120
- Table 5A.2 Component loadings 122